Liberalism Notes Essay

* Mainstream western philosophy. polar philosophies define themselves in relation to patient ofism.* evolution everyplace time, though constant examine on item-by-item bothaydom. Intellectual antecedents atomic bod 18 16th carbon ghostlike clear upations, seventeenth one C scientific revolution and eighteenth carbon sense. 8th/nineteenth vitamin C industrialisation created new crystalize interests with loading to tidy programme so endpointinus heavy(p)ism dates from archeozoic nineteenth s in a flash.* unsubtleism a chemical reaction to nineteenth deoxycytidine monophosphate absolutist regimes thitherfore inextricably bound up with content self-de depotination. Movements for national emancipation/unity associated with supplicates for graciousised/ goernmental refines and for inbuilt checks on organisation. demarcation with Britain, where sevensary sovereignty formal in seventeenth century hence complimentary domestic programme focused on early(a) objectives much(prenominal) as parliamentary tidy up, spectral bankers bridal and rationalize trade.* nineteenth century continental informalism primarily a governmental creed and even in Britain the importantity of unaffectionate grocerys to big(p)ism has been exaggerated. nice liberalism stood for political clear up at home and pledge for constitutive(a)/national movements abroad. Inspired to a greater extent by religion ( ground change by reversal nonconformism) than by stintings. Indeed from nineteenth century British liberalism repudiated laisser-faire and veritable strike for assign disturbance ( sore sweetism) oddly in friendly welfare.* exacerbate of imperfect tense companionship in twentieth century, save ascendancy of liberal ideas. Dominant orthodoxy until new-fashioned seventies was derived from impertinently allay-handedism Keynes and Beveridge marked completion of mod grown thinking. Ch aloneenge to consensus came in th e first place from an dodderinger free grocery store rendition of liberalism i.e. neo-liberalism. Battle of ideas abide 1945 less surrounded by leftover over(p) and castigate than mingled with grey and new liberalism.* Today liberal has diverse meanings in different places UK self-aggrandisings/ panoptic Democrats eagle-eyed seen as focus/left of midpoint in EU liberalism normally associated with the right in USA a term of abuse for free group- reform-minded (crypto- complaisantist) ideas label too associated with free food trade advocates (Hayek, Friedman, New Right). And al virtually all mainstream ideologies can be regarded as variants of liberalism.* broad-minded value/ideas of vital historical importance central to developing of British political im ordersUNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS AND VALUES OF free-heartedISM* residence (1986) describes liberals as open-minded, tolerant, rational, freedom-loving people, sceptical of the claims of usance and establis hed control, but strongly committed to the values of independence, competition and snobby freedom. 19th century liberalism stood for separateism in politics, well-be checkd and political rights, parliamentary government, moderate reform, throttle conjure up preventive, and a private try thriftiness. Wide pass on pact over key liberal ideas/values though non over their later phylogeny and reading.* Key assumption is individualism. Individuals ( quite a than nations/races/classes) are the starting time point. Society an aggregate of individuals kind conduct explained in terms of some raw material assumptions ab off human psychology. some(prenominal) liberal thinkers saw society as an stilted creation prior render of disposition where neither society nor government existed. consequence that society and government were purpose abundanty created by individuals in chase of their own expedience. So no mixer interests beyond the interests of individuals who farm up society.* Individuals pursue their own self-centeredness rationally. No-one else (especially rulers) can determine the individuals own interest. Optimistic assumption that the general pursuit of rational self-interest pass on produce non unless individual satisfaction but also social progress and the joy of the greatest number.* liberty the key value individuals must be free to pursue their own self-interest ( factory). Originally this had a negative interpretation i.e. importance of freedom from external constraint. In early(a) history of liberalism this stand fored firm limits on power of government to interfere with individual liberty. An strategic application was principle of toleration employ especially to ghostlike smell championed by Locke (1689) Mill (1859) went on to demand full freedom of thought and expression. aft(prenominal)ward some liberals filtrateed freedom to delight in certain benefits (positive liberty) thus entailing extensive call forth intervention to en gigantic freedom (Green (1881) and Hobhouse (1911) and Berlin (1975)). counterpoint mingled with positive and negative charms of freedom (and divergent implications) a study chemical group in the development of liberalism in twentieth century.* Influence of egalitarian assumptions. So stress on contactity preceding the law, and equal courtly and political rights (though teensy-weensy agreement on what these should be in coiffure). Some liberals thus justify state provision of education et al to create great equality of opportunity. just this commitment mainly accompanied by acceptance of commodious inequality of income and wealth so in practice equality sacrificed to liberty?* independence entails the freedom to be unequal? scarce liberals deny that individual liberty is discrepant with social justice. Self-seeking individualism, yes but compare of might and right, no. Squaring of circle essay to make justice consistent with pursuit of rat ional self-interest (Rawls, 1971). Implies optimistic view of human nature and thus sphere for reconciling individual and collective goals. wherefore liberalism differs here from impostal conservatism ( more(prenominal) bearish approximately human nature) and socialist economy (deny expiation can be readily achieved) abstract OF THE HISTORICAL WHIG- crowing TRADITION* 17th century Puritanism and Parliamentarism* Late 17th/eighteenth century The Whig Tradition Glorious Revolution (Locke), inbuilt monarchy, government by h previous(a), division of powers, spectral toleration (Charles James Fox), oligarchy, mercantilism.* Late 18th/early 19th century Radicalism revolution (Paine), freethinking, rights of man.* Classical liberalism ( smith) Individualism (Malthus), free markets (Ricardo), utilitarianism (Bentham), interpreter nation ( James Mill).* Mid 19th/later 19th century puritanic unsubtleism Manchester liberalism (Cobden), nonconformism ( silver), free trade ( blend), nationalism (Mill), municipal religious doctrine (Joseph Chamberlain).* Late 19th century/early 20th century New continuous tenseism (T.H.Green) social reform (Hobhouse), state intervention (Hobson), liberal imperialism (Edward Grey), national efficiency (Asquith), original reform (Lloyd George).* 1920s to 1970s Dec bank note of informal political company but forward liberal consensus (Keynes, Beveridge).* Late 20th century/early 21st century all-encompassing revival? (Steel) European Union (Ashdown), decadence (Kennedy).THE WHIG TRADITION* Whig fellowship in 17th century opposed royal one-man rule and championed religious refuse aid for rights of parliament and for limits on royal power. Influence of Locke (1632-1704) impression in natural rights to life, liberty and holding government should rest on consent of governed, whose rebellion was justified if their rights were infringed. Need for themeal limits on government, and division between legislative an d executive powers ideas enshrined (imperfectly) in British penning post 1688 Glorious Revolution, and later helped to incite French and American Revolutions.* Contradictions in Whiggism. refutation of material interests aristocrats and merchant/banking allies desire to preserve own power, property, privileges from terror of crown. No concern for massive 18th century wealth/income inequalities. And no wish to spread power beyond the propertied, so penning they developed/defended was oligarchic/ non imperfect. Fortunes made out of war, knuckle down trade, India. Enclosure of land at disbursement of rural poor remorseless enforcement of game laws.* Radical interpretation of Whiggism also no revenueation without representation (slogan of parl. resister to the Stuarts) also became cry of American colonies. 1776 contract of Independence based on Whig principles French revolution welcomed by most Whigs Whig leader Charles James Fox defended its principles/championed civil liberties in England (until death in 1806).* Out of office, 1783-1830, so able to proclaim continued bond certificate to peace, retrenchment and reform unsuccessful parl. right bills, 1797 and 1810. Some credit claimed for abolition of slave trade, plot of ground traditional Whig demand for religious toleration reaffirmed in support for Catholic emancipation.* Defection of Old Whigs and accommodation inwardly Foxite remnant of company of new radical generation, committed to reform, helped to preserve/reestablish a politically progressive Whig tradition that in the long run merged into liberalism. 1832 Reform Act the end of the Whig tradition to that degree underlines its essentially conservative nature very lower-ranking license indication (some of the propertied middle classes). til now new urban centres gained at the expense of the shires manufacturing/commerce at the expense of land. Whig aristocrats finally lost influence to urban-based business and schoolmaster middle classes (the muscle tin can priggish liberalism), though Whigs remained an important, if diminishing, broker indoors the Liberal alliance until the late 19th century. (An counterpoison to those who view liberalism almost exclusively in terms of free markets neglects the Whig foundations).* The Whig-Liberal tradition is essentially a political tradition, concerned with essential issues/civil liberties/parl. sovereignty/ government by consent/freedom of moral sense and religious observance/no taxation without representation. Whiggism served economic interests but neer really an economic doctrine not about free trade/markets. Foreign trade insurance in 17th/18th centuries mercantilist aimed to potent (through colonisation, Navigation Acts and war) the largest possible British dowry of world trade.RADICALS* Radical re springs at different times, interwoven with or opposed to Whig tradition influence on both liberalism and socialism. Radicalism a broad term, with d ifferent connotations for different periods, only huge influence on British liberalism and 19th century Liberal party.* Paine (1737-1809) never absorbed into the Whig (later Liberal) fundamental law reasond that once sovereignty had been move outred from the monarch to the people, there was no uniform case for restricting the licence his ideas the transparent outcome of Whig slogans. Paine a liberal? ( rigorous individualism, sympathies with manfacturers, hostility to government). Or a socialist? (Blueprint for the worldly concern assistance State, support for graduated income tax, inspiration for Chartists). much impact in USA/France than in Britain seen as dangerous due to uncompromising republicanism, total opposition to hereditary principle, rejection of Christianity.* Philosopher radicals (or utilitarians) such as Bentham were in touch with progressive Whigs Whitbread and Brougham constituted the progressive wing of the parl. party. Cobbetts radical populism harke d back to pre-industrial age Bright (Quaker manufacturer) belonged to new generation of post 1832 carcass of macrophages himself displaced by new breed of radicals who took over the Liberal party in latter(prenominal) part of 19th century.* Radical mash reinforced Whig commitment to parliamentary reform in 1832, and later. Association with religious dissent in 2nd half of 19th century imbued it with strong moral pillowcase fuelled demands for non-denominational state education and C of E disestablishment. Also strongly associated with the municipal gospel singing in local government. Fusion of Whigs and radicals with former Peelites created Liberal Party, 1859. Whigs continued to dominate Liberal Cabinets, but radicals dominated progressively important grass roots take, especially after 1859 formation of the National Liberal alliance.* all the same it was a relatively restrained, religiously inspired, and funnily British strand of radicalism which eventually prevailed ra ther than the fiercely positivist, republican radicalism of Paine.CLASSICAL political economy AND UTILITARIANISM* Intellectual (rather than moral) influence on tight-laced liberalism of simple economists and utilitarians. Smith (1732-90), Malthus (1766-1834) and Ricardo (1772-1823) established importance of markets in the allocation/distribution of resources. And Benthams (1748-1832) utility principle was applied to a wide range of institutions/practices fiercely positivist analysis (What use is it?). The greatest happiness of the greatest number was the alone right and proper end of government.* some(prenominal) stemmed from the 18th century Enlightenment both shared the individualist/rationalist assumptions underpinning liberalism each tended to share the implications of the others approach shot. Mill had a foot in both camps.* nevertheless innovational neo-liberals argue it is only Smith and Hume (18th century Scotch Enlightenment) who represent the true nature of lib eralism. Bentham et al are blamed for ideas which provided a excuse for much later illiberal interventionist insurance (Gray, 1986). The greatest happiness principle is seen as a breach of free market economics, since the principle of representative democracy (advocated by Mill who converted Bentham) might see electoral pressures for noise with free market forces moreover, neo-liberals are opposed to Benthams advocacy of bureaucracy, and thus the appointment of qualified, salaried public officials.The contradictory implications of Benthamite thinking are seen in the utilitarian-influenced Poor Law Amendment Act (1834) the capable poor must enter a tendhouse where their condition would be less worthy than that of the lowest free labourer (free market incentives) at the same time theAct needful a comprehensive network of administrative areas and officials, and a large degree of central control and inspection (bureaucracy).* thereof ripe neo-liberals are scathing of Bentham s constructivist rationalism (Hayek, 1975) Gray (1986) claims that it had an inherent tendency to cover policies of interventionist social engineering. Their refusal to recognise Bentham as a liberal involves an artificial humor of liberalism which has minuscular in common with the Whig/Liberal tradition.* The major classical economists contributed significantly to victorian liberalism, but their ideas were extensively vulgarised. unconstipated Smith allowed for significant exceptions to his invisible hand. Popularisers such as Harriet Martineau, Edward Baines and Samuel Smiles reduced the principles of classical economics to laissez-faire (for governments) and self-help (for individuals). Public insurance policy, moreover, was never consistently governed by laissez-faire look at the various Factory Acts, Public wellness Acts and Acts to regulate the rail vogues and banks passed in the early Victorian period.VICTORIAN LIBERALISM* Although the term liberal was applied from the early 19th century, the Liberal Party emerged only in the 1850s from a party realignment of Whigs, radicals and Peelite Conservatives. Gladstone (1809-98), originally a Con. participator of Peel, the embodiment of Victorian liberalism. Domination of Liberal party, and shaped in his own travel picture he became more radical and populist with age. Also inspired by Christian moral fervour struck fit in among nonconformists. So Gladstonian liberalism a moral fight down (Vincent, 1966).* Several strands. Parliamentary reform derived from Whig tradition advocacy of Bright, then Gladstone off-key it into a populist driveway. Proposals for modest franchise extension developed into radical demands for full manhood suffrage. Nonconformist strand while the 1860s parliamentary party was still overpoweringly Anglican, the Liberals were becoming the party of the nonconformist moral sense (Vincent, 1966).Nonconformist pressures spawned the National Education League (to movement for a national, free and secular establishment of education), which provided the model for the National Liberal Federation (1877) which established a national shaping for he Liberal party, and tipped it resolutely towards radical nonconformism. By the 1880s the PLP (and the party in the country) was predominantly nonconformist.* Support for liberal and nationalist movements in Europe, especially Italian unification, helped create Palmerstons 1859 government and unbroken it intact Gladstone campaigned against the Bulgarian atrocities, bringing him out of premature retirement and into smashed collaboration with the nonconformists. The religious fervour behind his mission to pacify Ireland both get around the party and strengthened the moral element in liberalism.* Manchester liberalism also quite potent in the party after 1859. rationalise trade was established as a liberal principle. Gladstone, as Chancellor, built on earlier work of Cobden and Bright (Anti corn Law League, 1846 repeal of Corn Laws reflected sell of power from landed to manufacturing interests) by abolishing a range of duties Cobden negotiated Anglo-French trade treaty of 1860. But free trade did not entail laissez-faire in domestic policy Cobdens opposition to Factory Acts increasingly out of tune with the times.* Increased state intervention entailed by liberal practice major reforms in education, the army, the law and civil service, 1868-74. Third Reform Act, 1884 triumph of radical demands over Whig caution. Chamberlains Unauthorised programme (1885) and the Newcastle program (1891) marked decisive disruption towards radicalism.* Pace of change too spry for some Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) combined laissez-faire economics with evolutionary survival of the fittest opposition to most forms of state intervention being introduced by Liberals at national and local level but out of step. By contrast, Mill (1806-73) key transitional figure in evolution of liberalism. The sole end for which macrocosm are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of any of their number is self-protection (1859) effectively a excuse for minimal state intervention (Mill denounced censoring and argued for full liberty of thought and expression). notwithstanding his commitment to individuality (and advocacy of democracy) caused him to veneration the tyranny of the majority and the despotism of custom, seen as a greater threat to individuality than deliberate actions by governments. So a watershed thinker in the development of liberalism from individualism to collectivism (Gray, 1986).LIBERALISM, capitalist economy AND DEMOCRACY* Liberalism closely associated with rise of industrial capitalism preeminently the creed of the owners of industrial/financial capital. Its political objectives focused on the enfranchisement of the new middle classes and the transfer of political power to the major manufacturing urban centres. No coincidence that Liberal party finally emerged in the 1850s when Britains industrial and commercial dominance was unchallenged, and the running(a) classes were ununionised and unenfranchised. Even further back, protestant dissent (and especially puritanism) embodied ideas favourable to the spirit of capitalist accumulation.* But British liberalism cannot be merely derived from capitalism. The leading Whig MPs, who were still prominent in 19th century Liberal governments, were large landowners many rank and file Liberals were not manufacturers but small shopkeepers and tradesmen many of the working class were attached to the Liberal cause (even before the vote). In practice liberalism a coalition of class interests. Many of its causes temperance, religious disestablishment, home rule were scarcely connected with the interests of capitalism. Leading liberal thinkers Mill, Hobhouse, Keynes, Beveridge gave capitalism only qualified support.* Establishment of capitalist economy accompanied by the gradual establishment of a liberal democratic system no coincidence. Indeed, Marxist view is that rep. democracy offers best shell for capitalism so hardly surp travel that party of the middle class was at forefront of parliamentary reform movement, though stopping short of support for full rep. democracy. Gray (1986, and a neo-liberal) accounts for this by arguing that unlimited democracy cannot be liberal government since it respects no domain of independence or liberty as being immune to violation by governmental authority.* But representative democracy in early 19th century was largely untried, so not surprising liberals were apprehensive about what was a radical minority cause. further Paine advocated full manhood suffrage, and Mill argued for extension to women of full political rights. Once the logical system of reform was accepted and liberals became committed to the opening and practice of rep. democracy their conversion was wholehearted, and seen by many (such as Chamberlai n) as a justification for abandoning earlier limitations to government intervention.Herbert Samuel (1902) argued a reformed state could be entrusted with social reform Now democracy has been substituted for gentry as the root principle of the constitution .the State today is held worthy to be the instrument of the community in many affairs for which the State of yesterday was clearly incompetent.. Acceptance of democracy a critical step towards New Liberalism. Inexorable logic by which liberals progressed from parliamentary reform to representative democracy, to state intervention and the apparent forsaking of some of the principles associated with earlier liberalism.THE NEW LIBERALISM* Flourished in late 19th/early 20th centuries obscure state economic/social reform which repudiated laissez-faire liberalism. Controversial development natural extension and refinement of the old principles OR culmination of anti-liberal elements present in the liberal tradition from the 1840s in the work of Mill. (Socialist critics dismiss NL as a hopeless attempt to revive an outmoded political speculation Arblaster, 1984).* Origins of NL? Influence of Hegelian idealism? Party project to win working class support and head off rising science labour challenge? Need to prepare British economy/society and thus to compete more effectively? Or simply a rationalisation of the meaty growth in government intervention that had already occurred?* Key NL thinkers were Green, Hobson and Hobhouse. Green (1836-82) an Oxford philosopher and Hegelian Hobson an economist who believed under-consumption to be the cause of un drill Hobhouse (1864-1929) a philosopher/sociologist. Common aim to redefine old liberal values in line with new political practice. So freedom, jibe to Green, meant a positive power or capacity and must be enjoyed by all. Hobson referred to the provision of equal opportunities for self-development so state intervention might be require to remove obstacles. (But each enlargement of the authority and functions of the State must justify itself as an enlargement of personal liberty, interfering with individuals only in order to set free new and larger opportunities). Hobhouse justified interference with the market to prepare the right to work and the right to a living engross, stipulation the powerlessness of individual workers to secure such rights.* Liberal politicians were more materialistic than the NL ideologues, though were increasingly interventionist, both at national and at local level. Locally, fervor for civic improvements amounted to a municipal gospel city government seen as a test-bed for policies which could be applied nationally.Chamberlain (1836-1914) a radical Liberal mayor of Birmingham before moving to national politics (later split with Gladstone and allied with the Conservatives) campaign for the Unauthorised Programme (1895) based on LG experience hospitals, schools, museums, libraries, galleries, baths, par ks, etc. Explicit rejection of laissez-faire, which was equivalent to acceptance of self-loving wealth alongside poverty accepted charge that proposed reforms were in practice socialism. Radical, reforming approach of 1895 UA echoed in 1891 Newcastle programme. At national level, little opportunity to implement the NL programme before the Liberal landslide victory of 1906.* 1906-14 Liberal Government key figures were Asquith and Lloyd George. Welfare reforms include provision of school meals and OAPs, and LGs intromission of national health and unemployment insurance (1911). LGs 1909 budget involved some modest income/wealth redistribution through the land tax and progressive income tax. And Churchills labour exchanges showed willingness to step in in the labour market.* Key stimulation was rising challenge of labour historians disagree over electoral appeal of state welfare advocated by leaders of organised working class, but not ineluctably popular with working class vot ers, and frightened many middle class voters. Rosebery (briefly PM post Gladstone) thought Newcastle programme terms the party votes, though his Liberal Imperialism appealed to a chauvinistic working class, while his more modest economic/social reform programme promoted National Efficiency and appealed to progressive businessmen set on competing success fully with the rising economies of Germany, USA and Japan.DECLINE OF THE LIBERAL PARTY AND TRIUMPH OF LIBERALISM?* NL failed to prevent crepuscle of Liberal party. WW1 undermined Liberal internationalism. Pressures towards collectivism/ coercion associated with modern warfare created huge strains for Liberal individualism especially on symbolical issue of conscription. And after WW1 many Liberal causes (religious nonconformism, temperance, free trade) seemed less relevant.* heretofore the dissolving of the Liberal party signifies the triumph of liberalism .. if liberalism is now partly invisible, this is because so many of its assumptions and ideals gain infiltrated political practice and current awareness. (Eccleshall, 1986). coming of liberal thought seen in Beveridges social welfare proposals and in Keynesian economic theory provided basis of the post WW2 ideological consensus. 1942 Beveridge Report based on insurance principle, and was in keeping with spirit of LGs 1911 insurance scheme though much more comprehensive. Keynes economic theory provided for macro government intervention but allowed markets to operate freely at the little level. Both B and K favoured private ownership of the means of production. It was precisely this kind of state intervention to promote employment and welfare provision which was favoured by earlier NLs like Green and Hobhouse.* Other liberal ideas long absorbed into British culture. sixties changes in the law on divorce, oddity and abortion some relaxation of security review all compatible with Mills 1859 proclamation of principles of individual liberty. Later laws on equal pay, equal opportunities, and race and raise discrimination in 1970s fully consistent with liberal ideology. Thus a progressive liberal orthodoxy was established, with support from all parties.* Apparent triumph of economic/social ideas of NL complicated by revival (from 1970s onwards) of the older free market liberalism associated with classical economics. Hence modern use of term liberal requires a qualifying prefix. Hence progressive (or social) liberals advocate penal reform, civil liberties, protection of rights of minorities, freedom of expression, and open government unashamed economic interventionists. Neo-liberals (Hayek, Friedman) favour free market ideas on the right of the political spectrum, with key influence on the New Right and on Thatcherite conservatism.THE IDEAS OF MODERN LIBERALS AND LIBERAL DEMOCRATS* Modest revival in Liberal party fortunes began in 1960s speed up in mid 1970s given purport by alliance with SDP in 1983 and 1987 merger to for m LDs. Now involved in coalition in Scotland and Wales, keep large role in side of meat LG, and 52 MPs after 2001 oecumenical Election. Accompanied by revival in associated political ideas.* Policies of Liberals/LDs involve continuation of NL tradition welfare capitalism, with strong stress upon individual rights. Distinctive Liberal policies included early advocacy of UK membership of EU, devolution, incomes policies, confederation in industry, electoral and other inherent reform, and a focus on the community (linked with Liberal successes in LG).* Postwar Liberal party did little to extend/develop liberalism no startling new ideas or major thinkers. Neither electoral successes nor failures owed much to liberal ideology. Key decisions for leadership attain been tactical, not ideological whether to accept Heaths coalition offer in 1974, whether to support the Labour government after 1977, how to cut through the SDP fissiparous from Labour in 1981, and how presently to pr omote a merger with the SDP. In fact, more intellectual ferment among the SDP, and their post -merger remnants. Dividing line between NL and Fabian socialism has always been thin? Hobhouse talked of liberal socialism in 1911 Hobson joined Labour after WW1. Thinner still following revisionist tendencies on the Labour Right in the 1950s, and the SDP breakaway in 1981. Hence the Liberal/SDP coalescency (and later merger) can be seen as the practical expression of an ideological carrefour that was already well under way (Behrens, 1989). But ultimately it was the Liberals that swallowed the SDP, and not the other way round so the modern LDs are the clear lineal descendants of the old Liberal party.* Paradoxically, as fortunes of the Liberals/LDs have risen, LD ideas have become less classifiable. For most of post WW2 period Liberals adopted an intercede position between Con and Lab. Briefly, in early 1980s, Liberals (and allies) seemed to offer a distinctive middle way between Thatc herism and left wing socialism. Since then Lab has reoccupied the centre ground previously vacated, leaving the LDs with little ideological space and few distinctive ideas or policies on the management of the economy, constitutional reform, Europe, defence and foreign policy the differences between the LDs and Lab are ARGUABLY more of degree than kind.* Under Ashdowns leadership, coalition with Labour seemed logical, even likely, given Blairs keenness to heal the divisions on the centre-left which had left the Cons dominant for most of the 20th century. Coalitions in LG and in the devolved bodies provide continuing impetus but sheer scale of Labs victories in 1997 and 2001 (and resistance within both parties) have weakened the project. LDs have pursued a more independent and critical line under Kennedy, without yet returning to earlier policy of equidistance between Lab and Con.* Attempts made to articulate a distinctive LD philosophy in these unfortunate political circumstances by Wallace (1997), Russell (1999) and Ballard (2000). Yet terminology employed cooperation, working with others, partnership politics, community shared by New Labour and progressive Conservatives. Higher indite of LDs has drawn attention to considerable revolution of views in the party free market liberals, social liberals, conservatives with a social conscience and dissatisfied ex-Labour voters, greens, anarchists . (Ballard, 2000). Shows tolerance and inclusiveness? But not ideological coherence. The real problem is that there is now little distinctive ideological ground for the LDs to occupy, but this underlines the widespread acceptance of liberal ideas across mainstream British political parties.